Histologically, the epidermis is composed primarily of four tightly-adherent layers of squamous epithelium organized into distinct vertical zones by stages of differentiation. Tells of the stratum basale essentially represent germinal cells (“brick generators”) responsible for the generation of all cells of the epidermis. As such, these cells are the most mitotically active keratinocytes (apparent in histologic sections) and are the least differentiated. Stratum basale keratinocytes divide and then “push up” towards the surface, differentiating into cells of the stratum spinosum.
Histologically, the stratum spinosum is located directly above (superficial to) the stratum basale. Cells of the stratum spinosum have prominent cell-to-cell junctions, termed desmosomes, that appear as spiky membrane projections on histology. For this reason, these are referred to as “prickle cells”. Desmosomes are protein complexes that firmly attach keratinocytes to their surrounding cells (intercellular, between cells), thereby providing significant structural integrity. Tonofilaments are intracellular (within cells) protein complexes that anchor desmosomes to the cell membranes.
The stratum granulosum, where present, sits above the stratum spinosum and directly below the stratum corneum. Histologically, the stratum granulosum is a thin layer of keratinocytes containing dense, basophilic (blue/purple) cytoplasmic structures called keratohyalin granules. Keratohyalin granules contain components responsible for keratinization, including fibrous proteins (keratohyalin) and a lipid-rich secretory product.
The stratum corneum is the variably thick (10-20 layers) outermost layer of the skin. Histologically, cells of the stratum corneum, or corneocytes, are flattened eosinophilic keratinocytes that lack nuclei (anuclear). Corneocytes, often considered “dead”, retain some metabolic and signaling functions despite having no organelles or nuclei.
Keratinocytes of the stratum corneum have a thickened, insoluble, hydrophobic, cell membrane and contain abundant keratin. In addition, the corneocytes are surrounded by a hydrophobic phospholipid secretory product (produced by stratum granulosum). Together, these combine to provide the hydrophobic and structural properties that serve to protect the epidermis from physical insults as well as water loss. Desmosomal attachment become more sparse in superficial layers, resulting in sloughing of keratinocytes, a process known as desquamation.